2. Executive Summary

The up-and-coming technological development that will define the next few centuries of scientific advancement is not in Artificial Intelligence, but rather our understanding of the sub-atomic: quantum. The quantum revolution leverages new innovative understandings in science theory and engineering capability to create new solutions in diverse spaces from cryptography to physical materials. Quantum computers, which offer the real possibility of replacing classical computers for intensive tasks, have the potential to transform and optimise sectors from agriculture and the life sciences to finance and operations. Other aspects of quantum such as communications and encryption technology pose short-term national security concerns and long-term potentials for secure communications if done correctly.

Drastic technological improvements in computing power and capacity are reshaping businesses, governments, and societies. As the global debate over generative AI and potential AGI materialises, lessons can be applied from the ongoing discourse to quantum—the next big technological leap. In the face of a technological revolution, governments have stepped up to create standards and policies that encourage the advancement of quantum technologies while guarding against national security concerns. Meanwhile, hundreds of startups around the world are emerging to help implement commercial deployment of scientific research and knowledge. The United Kingdom is no different; uniquely, the United Kingdom not only sits at the crossroads of various scientific and geopolitical cooperatives, including the unique UK-US relationship and Commonwealth relationship with leading quantum countries Canada and Australia, but also spearheads research through international hubs and initiatives.

This brief is a joint effort between the SPRING Group and Qsium, two youth organisations that advocate for the greater inclusion of student opinion in quantum innovation and policy governance. To achieve the UK’s goals, the co-authors recommend establishing quantum literacy centres and programs in universities and schools alongside specific implementations of a youth advocacy fellowship and ambassadorial programs. They firmly believe that a strong talent pipeline that includes coursework in ethics, quantum literacy programs in schools, and research centres is critical to maintaining the UK’s competitive edge in quantum and allowing the country to serve as a linchpin for international cooperation and innovation between various countries.

To model our recommendations, we reviewed relevant scientific trends in quantum research and development and the motivations that drive relevant stakeholders—including governments, universities, and corporations—to analyse how the UK can implement changes to its strategic goals in quantum leadership. We adopt a discursive approach to potential solutions, examining the UK’s vital role in the years to come. We urge the UK to invest in the driving force behind quantum’s bright future: the youth of today that will build tomorrow.

3. Background

3.1 Definition of Quantum Computing

The United Kingdom’s National Quantum Technology Programme (NQTP) defines quantum technologies as those that rely on the principles of quantum mechanics, or the laws that govern subatomic particles.¹ The NQTP includes research and development of several quantum phenomena including superposition, entanglement, and uncertainty as aspects of quantum technology. Of these technologies, quantum computing is often the most well-known that utilises quantum properties. It utilises the establishment of entanglement and superposition of quantum bits (qubits) to solve complex problems; however, quantum computing is only one of numerous quantum applications. Applications and development of quantum technologies can be found in quantum communications, encryption, and simulations.

The development of new quantum technologies is typically split into 1st generation and 2nd generation technologies.² 1st generation technologies are defined as technologies that simply utilise or observe quantum effects for fundamental base-level research. These typically use the concepts of spin and tunnelling. 1st generation quantum devices have been around for years, and include equipment such as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance,³ Scanning Tunnelling Microscope,⁴ and Josephson Junctions devices.⁵ 2nd generation technologies are more commonly known, and cover the scope of most cutting edge quantum technologies typically referred to in government goals. These technologies are still being developed, such as quantum computing and quantum encryption.

In quantum computing, quantum supremacy—the ability of quantum computers to solve complex computations that conventional computers cannot in a reasonable amount of time—is a strong indicator of success. Numerous researchers have already demonstrated quantum supremacy,⁶^,⁷,⁸ indicating that the quantum revolution is well on its way.

3.1.1 General Impacts of Quantum Technology

The vast applications of quantum technologies will likely make them a significant part of the global economy. McKinsey & Co. estimates that Quantum Computing Technologies could be worth as much as $700 billion by 2035.⁹ To leverage this economic potential around the world and gain a leg up against strategic competitors for national security, countries are rushing to invest in quantum technologies. In sum, there was a global government investment of $30 billion in 2022 for the development and advancement of quantum innovations.¹⁰

One of quantum’s primary and most relevant applications is encryption. Because of quantum technologies' ability to engage in entanglement and superposition, quantum computers will likely be able to break the current universal method of encryption: RSA.¹¹ To preempt attacks on international security by hacking any system that relies on RSA (currently used in all encryption systems around the world), America’s National Institute of Standards and Technology released a call for post-quantum encryption methods that can securely encrypt data with quantum methodologies as part of NIST’s Post-Quantum Standardization Project.¹² In July 2022, NIST selected four quantum resistant cryptography algorithms (CRYSTALS-Kyber, CRYSTALS-Dilithium, SPHINCS+, and FALCOLN) out of 69 evaluated candidate algorithms.¹³ These algorithms define new US Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS), covering areas from secure online signatures to websites. NIST plans to evaluate four more in the future.

Pharmaceuticals could also serve as an important sector of innovation. Currently, scientists struggle to identify and characterise the target protein in drug development. Quantum computing may be able to help characterise the proteins 3D. Furthermore, QC serves as an important basis for ‘hit generation.’ Oftentimes, drug developers may test through hundreds of thousands of compounds in order to find a ‘hit’ that binds to the target. While corporations already use computer aided drug design (CADD) to screen large compound libraries¹⁴ to smaller compound groups for testing as drug candidates, the high computing requirements of CADD limits the technology to small to medium sized drug candidates, ruling out large molecule drugs and biologies. By utilising quantum computing, pharmaceutical companies can apply this technology to larger molecules,¹⁵ including biologics.

In financial services, quantum technologies can build on current conventional algorithms tobe used for portfolio optimization,which oftentimes requires significant computing power, particularly for financial managers and bankers. The quantum phenomena of superposition and entanglement, which allows for numerous calculations to be done simultaneously, may resolve the issue of inefficiency and time consumption.¹⁶ Financial service companies such as JP Morgan are currently investing in building internal quantum teams to apply quantum technologies in the financial sector.¹⁷

Because of QC’s ability to reduce time complexity and calculate solutions to previously computationally-constrained problems, a variety of new applications are possible. For example, in the automotive industry, quantum computing has numerous applications to solve resource-intensive calculations. Quantum computers could help with route optimization for autonomous vehicles and mapping services. Volkswagan is currently partnering with D Wave Systems, a Canadian quantum computing company, to optimise public transport routes.¹⁸ Auto industry supplier Bosch has invested in quantum technologies as well, acquiring a $21 million stake in the quantum startup Zapata Computing.¹⁹

3.2 UK Quantum Goals

The UK’s quantum goals are coordinated through the National Quantum Technology Program (NQTP). Established in 2014, the program is focused on research and commercialising quantum technologies in the UK.²⁰

The UK’s National Quantum Strategy (NQS),²¹ released in March 2023, is focused on continuing UK quantum dominance from 2024 to 2034. It outlines four main goals:

World class research and skills: This includes both the creation of new training and educational opportunities for young people. It also includes investing in new research in universities, post-graduate and doctoral research programs, and partnerships with corporations for further advancements in the field.
Supporting business: Britain has some 160 organisations involved in the quantum sector and has the second highest percentage of private equity investment in quantum computing.²² This includes technical assistance from British research institutions, accelerating the release of new quantum technologies for commercial use, and creating and coordinating quantum technical standards.
Driving the adoption of quantum technologies in the UK: This includes government procurement of quantum technology, dedicating a quarter of NQCC’s quantum computing access to “critical applications of societal benefit,” and coordinating actions across government to support quantum adoption.
Leading quantum regulation and protecting the sector: Policies outlined in this plan include international efforts through NGOs and governmental groups to regulate quantum technologies, including in the G7, G20, WTO, and UN. In addition, the UK focuses on enforcing export controls for quantum technology alongside creating technical standards with international organisations.

Ultimately, this strategy aims to utilise £2.5 billion investment into research and development over ten years, £250 million investment in quantum technology, and at least £25 million for training skilled quantum workers. More extensive analysis on the 4 goals and current UK strategy regarding quantum technology is located in Section 6.

3.3 UK Quantum Strategy

To achieve these goals, the UK has developed a long-term strategy focused on improving British quantum competitiveness. Their principal strategy is increasing investment into the field to further research and development of quantum technology,with a focus on quantum computing. The UK is more than doubling its investment into quantum by investing 3.2 billion USD over the next ten years and angling to attract significant private investment as well.²³

Apart from quantum computing, the UK’s two other focuses are Quantum Sensing and Imaging and Quantum Clocks and Communication. New investment into quantum technology presents an opportunity to explore previously unknown applications and better understand quantum technology as a whole.²⁴

The UK founded the National Quantum Technology Programme (NQTP) in 2014 to connect government, academia, and industry to complete their quantum strategy. The program has already invested over £214 million in research through the Quantum Research Hubs, a national network of four university-led Quantum Technology Hubs to accelerate the research and development of quantum technology; £184 million to support universities to develop quantum technology through the Commercialising Quantum Technologies Challenge, a program finding new projects and technologies based on advances in quantum science and technology; and developed the Quantum Technologies for Fundamental Physics programme to apply quantum technology to investigating questions about the Universe.²⁵

3.4 US Quantum Strategy

The United States’ quantum technology policy is defined by the US National Quantum Strategy, National Quantum Initiative, and National Quantum Initiative Act. The quantum policy is characterised by three different ideas:

Getting the science right by understanding the applications and timelines by which quantum technology will benefit society, and the problems and concerns involved. This includes establishing research infrastructure such as national quantum research centres and enhancing core programs that fund quantum development.²⁶
Increasing international competitiveness by gearing quantum technology development toward economically beneficial and practical applications of the technology, while strengthening international relationships. This includes the development of the Quantum Economic Development Consortium (QED-C), an industry-led consortium of stakeholders that aims to expand the US quantum industry. One of the principal missions of QED-C is creating a robust quantum industry and establishing necessary supply chains in the US. ²⁷
Investing in education and honing talent to create opportunities for Americans to enter and contribute to the quantum industry. In fact, the National Quantum Initiative Act has charged agencies to invest in developing a quantum information workforce pipeline to begin educating the workforce, introducing more people to quantum technology, and making careers in quantum technology more accessible. Furthermore, a key part of their strategy is investing in K-12 education, principally with the National Q-12 Education Partnership, committing the next decade to work with America’s education systems to create a quantum learning environment.²⁸

3.5 International Collaboration

The United Kingdom is collaborating with other members of the international community on quantum research. Although the UK’s primary partner is the United States, it recently published a joint statement regarding cooperation in quantum information sciences and technologies that also revealed close collaboration with other Commonwealth countries such as Canada and Australia. The UK-US statement acknowledges how crucial quantum technology is to the future and establishes a few goals for the partnership, such as:

Embarking on good-faith cooperation underpinned by shared values like freedom of inquiry, merit-based competition, openness and transparency, accountability, and reciprocity; and promoting protection of intellectual property, safe and inclusive research environments, rigour and integrity in research, research security, and reducing administrative burdens.
Utilising existing bilateral science and technology cooperation mechanisms and multilateral cooperation frameworks, and pursuing new implementing pathways, as appropriate, to promote jointly funded and cooperative QIST research and development efforts.
Facilitating interactions between government, academia, and the private sector to discuss and understand research trajectories in QIST, which in turn will inform the identification of overlapping interests, gaps, opportunities for future cooperation, areas where standards or consortia are needed, and responses to the as-yet-unknown implications and impacts of the field.
Enabling opportunities to build the global market and supply chain for QIST research, and supporting economic growth by engaging stakeholders including industry consortia, research, policy, and business security stakeholders to grow a future QIST marketplace based on shared rules for engagement.
Creating regular bilateral and multilateral opportunities to discuss QIST matters of international importance and relevance to policy issues including regulatory, social, security, mutual access, and technology protection considerations.
Promoting multidisciplinary research and the cross-fertilization of research methodologies and data sharing as appropriate, including the exchange of people, particularly between respective quantum centres and hubs and universities participating in QIST R&D, to develop the next generation of scientists and engineers vital to expand the field.

The statement acknowledges how crucial quantum technology is to the future and emphasises continuing joint development and research into quantum computing, supporting the global market and supply chain, and promoting multidisciplinary research regarding quantum computing. ²⁹

The US and UK both have very similar collaborative stances regarding quantum computing. The United States is working with a number of countries including France³⁰, Switzerland³¹, South Korea³², and Australia³³. The US is already farther along on its quantum timeline as it has even more international partnerships already in place but the UK is moving ahead with its own plans. They already have a bilateral agreement with the United States and with Canada³⁴ but are planning to have similar agreements with at least 5 other countries by 2033³⁵. Both countries have similar plans regarding quantum computing collaborations, and the UK is quickly moving towards fulfilling its plans

3.6 Quantum Concerns

Despite quantum computing’s incredible potential, it has also raised significant concerns. The UK’s principal concern regarding quantum computation is the threat it poses to data privacy. Quantum computes of sufficient sophistication and size known as a cryptanalytically relevant quantum computer (CRQC) may eventually be capable of breaking most public-key cryptography used on digital divides across the world, posing a risk of infiltration into civilian and military communications, undermining system security and breaking security protocols for most Internet-based financial transactions.³⁶ The UK is not alone in its concerns as its primary partner, the United States shares its concerns³⁷.

4. Timeline of Quantum Development

4.1 Evolution of Quantum

Despite the vast range of applications and disciplines within quantum, its history is obscure and overlapped by numerous other scientific developments, with dates like the beginning of quantum being hidden among the beginning of a myriad of branches within quantum disciplines. Quantum physics arose in the late 1800s and early 1900s.³⁸ Although the field of Quantum physics emerged soon after, the field of quantum field theory generally emerged in 1927.³⁹ While it’s impossible to pin the many fields of quantum to one date, it is possible to describe the evolution of quantum through several longer time periods.

In general, it can be said that most fields of quantum found their roots in the early 1900s. Quantum mechanics, the fundamental ideology that underpins it all, was first developed in the 1920s.⁴⁰ The foundation for the study of quantum in general finds its roots back in 1859 when Gustav Kirchhoff proved a theorem about black body radiation. Josef Stefan, Ludwig Boltzmann, and Wilhelm Wein had all also played roles in early studies of quantum prior to the 1900s. These studies culminated in Max Planck’s theoretical study in 1900 that explored the radiation and absorption of heat/light by a black body, initiating the field of quantum mechanics.⁴¹

From there, disciplines revolving around quantum grew rapidly. Quantum computing saw a large increase in exploration, “triggered by Peter Shor who showed how a quantum algorithm could exponentially ‘speed up’ classical computation and factor large numbers into primes far more efficiently than any (known) classical algorithm [in] 1994.”⁴² New quantum theory saw major breakthroughs throughout the middle of the 1920s.⁴³ Intersectional fields, such as quantum chemistry, have since run for nearly a century.⁴⁴

While that pinpoints a basic timeline for studies of quantum and its many disciplines, the question of modern usage has yet to be answered. While many fields have grown exponentially throughout the decades, the field that saw the most abrupt yet largest growth is surely quantum computing, granted that, “after decades of heavy slog with no promise of success, quantum computing is suddenly buzzing with almost feverish excitement and activity.”⁴⁵ That’s not to say other fields haven’t seen a large increase in practical use, especially in the field of quantum chemistry where, “the myriad tools of quantum chemistry are now widely used by a diverse community of chemists, biologists, physicists, and material scientists.”⁴⁶

4.2 Quantum Computing

The need to model simple quantum interactions efficiently inspired the development of quantum computers. Richard Feynman, in 1981, showed that traditional computing, the chips and cores in use then and now, cannot reasonably model quantum processes.⁴⁷ For example, take a simple atomic system with 40 electrons that can be in 80 possible positions. This system has 1.075×10²³ configurations, something no current modern computer can store and model, which led Feynman to propose a new model of computer. Quantum computers utilise qubits instead of normal bits, which yield a phenomenon called superposition, wherein the qubit has two different states, each with its own probability, which allows the encoding of far more information and possibilities.⁴⁸^,⁴⁹

Quantum computing really gained traction when Peter Shor created Shor’s algorithm, which allowed numbers to be factored much faster, creating the possibility of breaking modern encryptions, including RSA.⁴⁷ This was of course, a cause for concern, but it also generated interest in quantum for applications outside of quantum mechanics. Applications now include subjects like chemical/biological engineering, where quantum computing can model the complex interactions with chemical reactions, and complex manufacturing, where it can model incidents and failures, particularly in chips. Of particular interest, there are applications in AI and finance to find larger scale patterns present in the immense amount of data and to perform complex calculations.⁵⁰

It is important to note that quantum computers are not universally faster than traditional computers--they can just address different types of problems. Consider the GPU; the graphics processing unit is the standard for AI/ML computation due to its incredible speed in matrix multiplication, but for other calculations, a CPU or central processing unit is much faster. In the same way, quantum computers are not supreme over every task.⁵¹

4.3 Future Quantum Pathways

Quantum technologies and quantum computing are both nascent fields with many directions for future research. Quantum is still very much rooted in theory and has largely not been implemented in the industry.

For quantum computing specifically, computers do not have enough qubits for sizable calculations, which means that even state-of-the-art quantum computers cannot complete more complicated problems. Quantum computers also must be isolated from the outside environment so that the quantum state can be usable, and additionally, it is very difficult to maintain that level of isolation for a substantial period of time. Very few utilisable calculations can be performed during that time. Quantum cores must also be kept near absolute zero, making them unsustainable and even more difficult to manage.

These issues are being researched intensely⁵² in the field of quantum research. For example, another extremely common issue with quantum computing is the quantum error rate--the computers switch qubits frequently and make mistakes, simply by erroring in calculation due to unsteady equipment. In recent years, this issue has been researched intensely. In February, it was discovered that by increasing the number of qubits (the compute capacity), a quantum computer would make fewer errors.⁵³

In quantum semiconductor design, the goal of faster, more efficient, and more sustainable chips remains at large. Currently, industrial scientists are trying to solve quantum capacitance and fluctuations using quantum technologies in the chips, which could revolutionise the units of computing, creating faster conventional computers.⁵⁴

In quantum biology, researchers are finding that small particles are naturally endemic to any biological system, and that as a result, quantum biology is needed to fully recognize the interactions that happen at a subcellular level. Quantum biology aims in the future to model small particle interactions and strong magnetic fields, which in turn provide further understanding of the connection between biology and quantum processes.⁵⁵

Quantum research is among the most cutting edge sciences today, with promising research directions. Amidst the hype and the rumours is a field that has yet to unleash the majority of its advancements. Quantum is at a youthful stage, where most of its promising revolutions are yet to come. It remains up to a collaboration of science, people, and the government to take it there.

5. Economic & Scientific Trends in Quantum

5.1 Economic Potential

Quantum computing has the potential to catalyse a wave of new technologies, revolutionising various industries and reshaping the global economy. Quantum could capture nearly $700 billion dollars in value by 2035, and is projected to exceed $90 billion dollars annually by 2040. Industries including automotive, chemicals, financial services, and life sciences could gain up to $1.3 trillion dollars in value by 2035.

Amid growing popularity, several major countries are making a push on investments in quantum. Europe has invested $7.6 billion dollars, ahead of the United States ($2.2 billion) and China ($5.5 billion). However, Europe trails behind in commercialization due to weaker coordination between research, start-ups, venture capital, and industries. Specifically, despite substantial support, the United Kingdom is only the fifth biggest issuer of patents in quantum, behind China, the United States, and Japan. Contrastingly, European countries are outpacing the United States in research and publications.

5.1.1 Crop Cultivation

One of quantum computing's major implications is its effect on crop cultivation and agricultural practices.⁵⁶ From a data standpoint, due to the heightened computational power, quantum computing could provide farmers with more precise data on planting schedules, irrigation management, and harvesting strategies. This would not only increase crop efficiency but also foster sustainable agricultural practices. In fact, even before the cultivation process, farmers are better able to decide which crop seeds to grow due to quantum simulations that simulate the development of new crop varieties with desired traits such as increased yield or disease protection. This uniquely hastens the traditional process of manually breeding crops.⁵⁷

On a macro-level, due to the “smart” capabilities of the technology, the University of Southern California found that “quantum computing can reduce waste and optimise resources in crop production.” With the combination of an increasing population and climate change’s wreaking havoc on existing crops, quantum’s practical applications become increasingly important.⁵⁸

5.1.2 Healthcare

Quantum computing has a key impact in revolutionising healthcare.⁵⁹ One of these lies with drug discovery and development. Because quantum computers can simulate and analyse molecular interactions at thousands of times the scale of normal computers, they can identify drug interactions with diseases. By creating faster and more effective drugs, this would not only decrease the cost of medicine, but it would also save the lives of hundreds of millions of people. In fact, in just 2023, IBM and the Cleveland Clinic have unveiled “the first quantum computer dedicated to healthcare research,” sparking new research development.⁶⁰ Moreover, another specific healthcare impact is processing large amounts of data. Often, due to the large number of patients, patients spend millions on administrative fees and the processing time is slow. However, Quantum’s high processing output significantly alleviates this problem. With current computers, health data is only around 70% accurate compared to early quantum computers already “outperforming classical results.” Indeed, this market has enormous potential as the market is expected to grow from “$85 million in 2023…to $503 million by 2028.”⁶¹

5.1.3 Cybersecurity

With the continued development of quantum technology, it has the potential to break the encryption methods currently used to secure digital communication. Due to the fast processing speed, the computer is able to utilise Shor’s algorithm to quickly decode encryption like RSA. Such a risk would be catastrophic as it would compromise the security of online transactions, critical infrastructure, and communication.

Because of the security risks, countries have increased quantum investment such as the U.S. Army marking a “$2M Investment in Quantum-Resilient Cybersecurity.”⁶²

Even so, quantum computers further provide a solution to the challenge–Quantum key distribution (QKD).⁶³ More specifically, while this tool continues to use the basic concepts of creating secure encryption keys, it will be undetectable by intruding quantum technology.⁶⁴

5.1.4 Climate Change

The 2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference reaffirmed ambitious new targets for reducing emissions and limiting global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Unfortunately, the measures would only reduce warming by about 1.7 to 1.8 degrees Celsius by 2050, falling short of the critical threshold believed necessary to avert existential threats.

Achieving net-zero is not possible without significant advances in climate technology. Quantum computing could help develop decarbonization technologies able to eliminate more than 7 gigatons of CO2 a year, paving the way to a net-zero economy.⁶⁵ For reference, a gigaton is approximately twice the mass of all the people in the world.

The distinct ability of quantum computing to simulate the chemistry at the core of all human activity means that it could help drive groundbreaking advancements in carbon capture, new fuels, batteries, fertilisers, catalysts, and more.⁶⁶⁺⁶⁷⁺⁶⁸

5.1.5 Financial Services

Many financial services use algorithms and models that calculate statistical probabilities to assess a range of potential outcomes. Although fairly effective, these methods are not infallible. Precise and timely assessment of risk remains a critical challenge for many financial institutions. In a world where data plays a pivotal role, companies are becoming increasingly conscious of the need for powerful computers. Several banks are adopting a new generation of processors that harness the principles of quantum physics to rapidly process enormous volumes of data.

Quantum computing allows banks to analyse vast, disorganised datasets more effectively. Heightening insights into these areas could help institutions make better decisions and enhance customer service by offering more timely and tailored solutions.⁶⁹

Furthermore, companies that rely on computationally heavy models, such as quant-driven hedge funds, grapple with costs that rise exponentially with model complexity. Due to the superior speed of qubits over classical bits, adopting quantum computing would decrease costs dramatically.

Quantum computing allows for faster and more precise decision-making, for example finding the ideal investment portfolio mix. Combinatorial optimization improves algorithms by reducing the number of possible outputs and making searches faster. This could potentially be useful in domains such as algorithmic trading.

Although many of these applications are not entirely feasible today, the timescale for obtaining sufficient capacity is relatively short–estimated at five to ten years.

5.1.6 Investment

Currently, approximately 80% of funding for overall global quantum development comes from the private sector with the remaining 20% coming from government initiatives and subsidies.⁷⁰ In January 2021, 17 countries had a national quantum strategy for 15 others enacting similar efforts. However, 150 had no government initiatives or advancement plans. UK Funding in 2021: £400M (US$540M) for first phase (2014-19), at least £350M (US$473M) for second phase.

The UK government in particular invested £400M (US$540M) for the first phase (2014-19), and at least £350M (US$473M) for the second phase of the National Quantum Technologies Programme. With quantum set to become one of the leading areas of scientific investment in coming decades, the field could grow to a US $106 billion market size by 2040.⁷¹ To sustain this goal, the UK updated its national investment plan to add £2.5 billion in the quantum technology industry over the next ten years. The country remains in the top 10 for largest percentage of GDP investment into quantum development.⁷²

5.2 Government Scientific Developments

The National Quantum Technologies Programme, created in 2013, was key in establishing the UK’s position at the forefront of quantum innovation. Today, the program mainly focuses on research that can be applied to all sectors of industry, from finance to healthcare to green energy. Part of this is the Quantum Landscape Map, which is an open access tool that maps quantum investment and expertise and can be used to predict the UK’s quantum capabilities. During the UK QTP's second phase of funding, Oxford University is set to lead the UKRI EPSRC Hub in Quantum Computing and Simulation to research hardware and software necessary for future quantum computers and simulators.⁷³⁷⁴

In June of 2022, Rigetti UK Ltd., a subsidiary of Rigetti Computing Inc., switched on its first UK-based 32-qubit Aspen-series quantum computer. This machine will have access to Rigetti’s global framework and development teams, allowing it to work in tandem with other global efforts by the company.⁷⁵

One of the most significant steps toward usable quantum has been the launching of Oxford Quantum Curcuit’s Quantum Computing as-a-service (QCAAS), which is the UK’s first commercially available advanced quantum computer. While the rest of the European Union remains ahead of the UK post-Brexit in terms of quantum development, the United Kingdom continues to make significant steps forward through industry and research.

To date, the government has funded 139 projects involving 141 quantum organisations through the Innovate UK Commercialising Quantum Challenge and maintained a Top 3 position in this sector through the National Physical Laboratory. By 2033, the UK will have a projected 15% stake in the global quantum technologies market, placing it among the top 5% of countries owning shares.⁷⁶

5.3 University Scientific Developments

In recent years, universities worldwide have been at the forefront of groundbreaking scientific developments in quantum computing. From the development of more robust quantum computers with the potential to revolutionise computation to advances in quantum communication and cryptography, universities have been driving innovation in this new frontier. Researchers from the University of Sussex and Universal Quantum introduced a new technique, dubbed ‘UQ Connect,’ which demonstrates that qubits can move between quantum computer microchips with unprecedented speed and precision. They were able to achieve a 99.999993% success rate and connection rate of 2424/s, both of which are world records. This would allow chips to slot together to form a more powerful quantum computer. The 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to researchers Alain Aspect, John Clauser, and Anton Zeilinger for their work in quantum entanglement.

Despite these breakthroughs, the overall trend has been a slowdown in quantum research. 1,589 quantum-related patents were granted in 2022, 61% fewer than the previous year. Moreover, the number of published papers declined by 5% from 2021 to 2022. The quantum slump is partially induced by the lack of talent. A widening talent gap in quantum computing threatens to jeopardise progress and endanger billions of business value. Currently, there is only one qualified quantum candidate for every three quantum job openings. If present trends continue, by 2025, less than 50% of quantum computing jobs will be filled.

In response to rising demand for quantum-educated talent, more universities are creating new master’s degree programs in quantum and integrating quantum into existing curricula. Universities with master’s programs in quantum increased from 29 in 2021 to 50 in 2022, producing 55% more master’s level graduates.

5.4 Corporate Scientific Developments

In 2022, global investments into quantum technologies reached $35.5 billion dollars with governments worldwide seeking to support research and development.⁷⁷ The past two years has boasted unprecedented growth in quantum computing. From 2021 to 2022, the number of job openings increased by 19%. In 2022 alone, quantum technology startups received $2.35 billion dollars of investment, marking a 1% increase from the previous year. On a more macro level, “68% of all start-up investments in quantum since 2001 occurred over the past 2 years.”⁷⁸ Large tech companies are also getting involved with IBM and Amazon pouring millions in capital.

As of March 7, 2023, there are 48 quantum computing startups in the United Kingdom.⁷⁹ Amid emerging commercialization, quantum startups around the world are racing to develop viable technologies. Quantinuum claims to have made a “breakthrough” towards fault-tolerant quantum computing, bringing us one step closer to the realisation of a quantum computer capable of tackling real-world problems.⁸⁰ Indeed, companies expect to achieve the first generation of fault-tolerant quantum computers by the second half of this decade.⁸¹ Recently, IBM presented a 433-qubit quantum processor, and plans to build a 4,000-qubit processor by 2025. Xanadu has used a photonic quantum computer to demonstrate quantum advantage in Gaussian boson sampling.

6. Analysis of Current UK Strategy

The United Kingdom NQS delineates four primary goals: developing world-leading research & skills, supporting businesses, driving the adoption of quantum technologies in the UK, and leading quantum regulation and protecting the sector.

6.1 Goals 1 & 2: World-Leading Research & Skills and Supporting Businesses

“The next phase of quantum R&D in the UK will be even greater in terms of ambition, scale and impact. It will focus on securing and building on our existing strengths, as well as exploring new areas of scientific endeavour. It will provide greater support to the work of our researchers and businesses to translate, demonstrate and commercialise quantum research, driving development in key areas with commercial, societal or security value. This will ensure that the UK is a global centre of excellence for the long term.”

– Research & Development Section, UK Quantum Strategy

Beyond funding considerations (which are more deeply analysed in other subsections within the Analysis of Current UK Strategy chapter of this brief), a number of opportunities for skill development will burgeon as a result of the NQS. A comprehensive plan is outlined for the first of two 5-year phases. Notable elements of the plan include international collaboration schemes, goal-oriented innovation programmes, and training/talent/quantum tech acceleration programmes.

While scientific discoveries and breakthroughs in the lab have proved valuable for the United Kingdom’s goal of rapid quantum technological development, the most critical contribution must be the willingness of governments and private enterprises of all sizes to fiscally back and usher in a new era of quantum technology through direct adoption. The UK has taken a number of bold steps in their NQS to support and incentivize government spending and private investment from businesses. Notably, strong institutional backing of quantum technology can function as a direct vote of confidence and attestation to the utility of quantum in business.

Currently, the UK has attracted around 12 percent of global private equity investment from quantum tech businesses and companies and has amassed 9 percent of the global market share in quantum technologies. Their goal for the NQS is to accrue around 15 percent of global private equity investment from businesses and obtain 15 percent of the global market share in quantum technologies.

6.1.1 Funding Allocations

Of the UK’s £2.5 billion funding dedication, a significant portion of it is going to incentivizing business. Here’s how they plan to utilise some of that funding:

£20 million for acceleration activities working with the sector on collaborative R&D in quantum networking
£100 million investment to continue to develop research hubs for private and public sector quantum research.
£20 million additional funding for increased activities through the National Quantum Computing Centre

6.1.2 Collaboration & Quantum Infrastructural Investment

The UK intends to work avidly with quantum companies and key industry bodies to learn about the industries’ wants and needs. These key industry bodies include organisations such as UKQuantum, a conglomerate of multiple quantum research groups and business departments all under one voice. The UK plans to tailor all government actions toward industry growth, providing all the needs necessary for businesses. Many collaborative efforts include creating a detailed design for the future R&D program and the design for future regulations and standards regarding quantum technology.

The UK recognizes that to incentivize business growth, state-of-the-art infrastructural development will be necessary to show companies that they’re truly the best place for research. As such, the UK has taken drastic steps to take their infrastructure to the next level.

Improving Research Centres/Facilities: The UK is investing 100 million pounds into expanding the capabilities of multiple research hubs across the country, including facilities at the National Physics Laboratory in Teddington, the National Dark Fibre Facility, and tons of increased computing capabilities in hubs like Edinburgh, the Catapults, and the Hartree Center. They’re also planning to establish the new National Quantum Computing Center at the Harwell Campus. Better research capabilities will prove very beneficial in attracting business.
Localised Clusters: The UK has a huge advantage for attracting business through localised supply chain clusters. Quantum technology requires a massive amount of materials, pushing the majority of private sector companies to rely on massive imports and general expenses. Having such materials localised decreases costs, and is what incentivizes many businesses to choose specific countries. The UK has invested much into making those materials accessible for all businesses, specifically in the semiconductor and photonics industry. The UK’s “Wales Semiconductor Cluster” provides the UK with great technological capabilities. With over 2500 high value jobs and a one billion dollar expansion commitment, this cluster has provided all the necessary materials for important quantum components, being the local coordinator of the National Quantum Foundry.
- Not to mention, the UK’s “Scotland Photonics Cluster” has already done so much work for the quantum sector already. With a turn-over rate of almost 1.2 billion dollars, massive corporations like Coherent Scotland and M Squared started their inception in the Wales Cluster. Access to these clusters is another incentive the UK is leveraging to attract business.
- The UK plans to use that funding to strengthen current infrastructure, through launching missions to support commercialisation, work with the industry to undertake feasibility studies on key infrastructure and possible extensions, and commissioning the Royal Academy of Engineering to undertake an infrastructure review to determine the future of cluster investments.
Impact on the Supply Chain: Due to the UK’s tech clusters (Wales’ Semiconductor Cluster and Scotland’s Photonics Cluster), they are a key player in the global supply chain for quantum business. Quantum companies from all over rely heavily on imports (85 percent rely on imports to build quantum technologies) meaning the UK has a lot of leverage for business. The UK plans to use this leverage by working with UkQuantum and techUK to develop promotional material targeted at local users as well as starting international campaigns, to promote the UK quantum sector. The UK plans to work with global partners to help build such trade opportunities and open up investment opportunities for such companies. With more opportunities and higher demand, businesses can grow easier in the UK than they can in many other countries.
Impact on Business Support: Creating and managing a startup is not an easy process, and that’s why the UK is planning to create an ease-of-access support hub to compile all their support mechanisms into one convenient place. This hub will primarily consist of multiple support mechanisms to overcome the challenges of starting and scaling up business ideas, digital guidance tools managed from the Intellectual Property Office to help new businesses with IP management, testing and evaluation services provided by the National Physical Laboratory to turn prototypes into industry-ready products, security advice from the National Protective Security Agency, as well as provision of local markets from the Department for Business and Trade to grow local demand. The DBT is also looking to create overseas investment for new quantum companies to expand outside of the UK.
- All of this support will be collated in a single quantum business growth directory, to help ease all the written stuff behind starting a business. This way, upcoming startups have a guide of all the steps that need to be followed, resulting in more business created for the UK.

6.1.3 Accelerator Programmes for Quantum Adoption

To support the quantum sector quickly, the UK is planning to create accelerator programs to help grow quantum startups and SMEs in the region. Accelerator programs, in general, are structured programs designed to rapidly develop new businesses by providing aid like free mentorship, education, networking opportunities, and access to important resources. For those who are looking to start a business from scratch, accelerator programs are an effective way of speeding up the entire marketing/business process.

In the UK’s case, they are mainly expanding and building on the UK’s National Quantum Technologies Programme’s current accelerators. One of their biggest accelerators is the Industrial Strategy Challenge Fund (ISCF) competition, which has already had tons of success growing a majority of businesses.

The ISCF competition was a program created by the UKRI (UK Research and Innovation) in 2016. Effectively, businesses are rewarded huge capital investments from the government if they start solving certain engineering and societal challenges. Businesses supported by ISCF with £153 million have raised £425 million in private sector financing since the ISCF’s inception.

Specifically, in the quantum sector, the ISCF has given out mass funding in two different waves. Wave 2 (2018-2021) has raised almost 20 million pounds to incentivize businesses to research and develop multiple quantum technologies, such as a quantum gravity sector which can now search underground easily for hidden structures. Products like this are finding their way into quantum startups. The UK’s Wave 3 (2020-2025) is even more impressive, raising over 153 million pounds to support product and service innovations and multiple supply-chain elements for new startup businesses to utilise.

If the UK is able to replicate the success of their current accelerators, they will see massive success in private business investment, as the number of new startups will exponentially rise in their nation.

6.1.4 US-UK Parallels in Quantum Expansion Strategy

The United States of America (U.S.) and UK share many methods to encourage quantum business expansion in their own respective states.

Both are offering direct support to help ease the burden for startups by providing comprehensive guides and advice toward maximising efficiency. They do differ however in how they operate. The UK plans to create a resource hub, designed by multiple credible government agencies to offer advice to companies. Meanwhile, the USA is creating a “consortium” or association of companies/agencies to provide a forum regarding industry trajectory and help to further business growth.

Both are also planning to maximise and grow quantum infrastructure, such as improving and growing research centres all across the country. Both are focusing on improving federal centres all across the country side; however, the UK is taking the extra step by creating a new centre (National Quantum Computing Center at the Harwell Campus), while the US is only focused on improving pre-existing quantum hubs.

6.2 Goals 3 & 4: Driving UK Quantum Adoption & Quantum Regulation

“We will make the UK the home for cutting-edge scientific breakthroughs, the best place in the world to start and

grow a quantum business, a leading voice in the international

quantum and tech community, and a magnet for international

quantum talent.”

– Ministerial Foreword, UK Quantum Strategy

6.2.1 Applications of Quantum to Businesses

To further drive the business growth, quantum technology is useful to advance entrepreneurial capabilities. On an employee scale, quantum technology enables businesses to quicken communication while ensuring security. This can help increase the efficiency of information transmissions and, therefore, increase productivity from the workplace to the consumer market.

Even for product manufacturing, quantum can efficiently coordinate manufacturing needs, creating the highest output at a minimal cost and therefore increasing profits. Similarly, when shipping the products, quantum computing can optimise supply chain and logistics operations, improving route planning, inventory management, and demand forecasting for companies. For instance, in New York, after accounting for delivery constraints, IBM’s quantum computing technology could choose routes to 1,200 locations, saving time and money.⁸²

6.2.2 Implementation of Quantum Infrastructure and Regulation

Since the substantial investment of 2.5 billion in quantum technologies through the UK’s quantum strategy, businesses have been quick to start implementing them.⁸³^{, ⁸⁴} The UK’s National Quantum Technologies Programme has contributed £1 billion to fund the implementation and commercialization of quantum technologies, which directly translates to public access and utilisation.⁸⁵ With this government endorsement, businesses can focus more on industry implementation rather than profitability, thus increasing the productivity margin immensely. The transition from traditional methods to quantum computing in the UK is not only a leap forward for technological innovation, but also a strategic move to get small businesses ahead of the curve.

Quantum regulation will play a critical role in facilitating the effective deployment of quantum technology within businesses. A number of policies, such as the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (approval for international students/researchers to do quantum research in the UK), National Security and Investment Act (government intervention to weather against monopolising mergers & acquisitions of quantum companies), and export controls (ensuring UK quantum companies’ compliance with international law), strengthen the protection of trade secrets, free market competition, and national security interests.

With most public communication occurring via public-key cryptography (PKC) dependent on “the difficulty of the mathematical problems of integer factorisation and calculating discrete logarithms,”⁸⁶ cryptographically relevant quantum computers (CRQCs) are capable of surmounting such mathematical challenges. Therefore, a prime point of concern is particularly the cybersecurity risks associated with unrestricted, unchecked proliferation of quantum absent quantum-safe cryptography. A National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) white paper cites a standardised framework for quantum-safe cryptography proposed by the National Institute for Standards and Technology in development since 2016. NIST suggests reducing reliance upon hash-based signature systems (i.e. LMS and XMSS) in favour of standardised QSC.⁸⁷

7. Policy Proposals

7.1 Academia and Education Proposal

7.1.1 Establish Quantum Centres in Universities

While many universities will offer degrees in subjects relevant to quantum, specialised cross-curricular centres in universities focussing on quantum specifically and pulling in students and academics from across relevant disciplines would facilitate interdisciplinary research, pulling in experts from physics, computer science, engineering, material sciences, and more. Through collaboration with the government and industry, quantum curricula would be elevated and the stage set for further groundbreaking research. The funding of these centres does not need to rely on the taxpayer, for public-private partnerships in universities, as seen already in many sectors, can incentivise corporations with a quantum interest (the number of which will rise sharply in coming years) to invest in quantum centre to get ‘first dibs’ of the massive academic talent pool of the UK. A stringent evaluation framework should be put in place to assess the impact of these centres periodically to ensure their quality and academic impact.

7.1.2 Introduce Quantum Literacy Programs in Schools

The future of quantum lies in the hands of the next generation. Therefore, quantum literacy must be established at the school level, rather than leaving understanding of such a crucial subject to only the small minority of the country that pursue degrees that directly touch upon it, leaving society as a whole less prepared for the opportunities quantum holds. Schools should collaborate with experts, potentially directly with local universities, to introduce age-appropriate quantum mechanics and quantum computing lessons. These programs should be designed to be interactive and engaging to help cultivate early interest, involving both theoretical and practical learning tools, such as quantum simulation software for older students. Furthermore, quantum education should be encouraged to a greater extent within public examination qualifications such as GCSEs and A/AS-Levels to ensure that quantum competency is an examined ability, not only within the physics syllabus but also within any subject that directly links in with quantum as a field.

7.2 International Cooperation Proposal

7.2.1 Form a Quantum Alliance with Key Global Players

An international Quantum Alliance of the nations leading in quantum technologies such as the US, Japan, South Korea, and some EU and Commonwealth member states should be established. This Quantum Alliance would involve the exchange of scientific knowledge, collaborative research, and mutual policy development, and an annual summit could serve as the platform for sharing progress and aligning goals. The UK, through being at the forefront of the formation of this organisation would position itself clearly as a global quantum leader, encouraging other nations to seek out the UK to collaborate with on quantum matters in the future.

7.2.2 Open Quantum Data Repositories for Global Collaboration

Data is the lifeblood of scientific research. Therefore, the UK should initiate a global, open-access quantum data repository, making use of the fact that some of the greatest centres of scientific research, such as Oxford and Cambridge, are British, to elevate quantum understanding. Researchers around the world could contribute and draw from this bank of knowledge, speeding up quantum research and positioning the UK as an international leader focussed on spreading knowledge and advancing quantum progress. This repository would ensure an open framework from collaboration while protecting sensitive information and not adversely affecting the economics surrounding scientific research.

7.3 Innovation Proposal

7.3.1 Establish a Quantum Startup Incubator

The vitality of quantum innovation is dependent upon the influx of fresh ideas and energetic entrepreneurship. To this end, a dedicated Quantum Startup Incubator should be established, offering not only grants and other resources such as office space, but also mentorship from leaders both academic and industrial. Seed funding, with a systemic review mechanism to release additional tranches of funding based on key performance indicators, partnership brokering, with a focus on creating a British quantum network of academic and commercial organisations, regulatory guidance, to ensure smaller firms can focus on their real work rather than admin, and market access and expert guidance to allow growing firms to spread their wings in the global market should all be provided to ensure that the UK is the definitive location for quantum innovation.

7.3.2 Implement a Quantum Innovation Fund

In order to stimulate innovation, a specialised Quantum Innovation Fund should be established and managed collaboratively between the public and private sectors, allowing investors and the government to maintain an active stake in the development of quantum firms both fledgeling and well-established. To this end, a risk assessment framework utilising quantitative assessment measures should be used to evaluate prospective investments, pulling in expertise not only from tech investors, but from academics who can assess the validity of the science itself, safeguarding the fund from financially or scientifically weak investments.

7.4 Preparedness Proposal

7.4.1 Develop a National Quantum Infrastructure Plan

As quantum technologies mature, leading to increased commercialisation and general real-world impact, the UK’s existing national infrastructure will require significant upgrades in order to harness the full potential that quantum has to offer. Detailed studies need to be conducted to better understand how to best prepare the national energy grid and other energy infrastructure for high-energy quantum technologies such as quantum computer centres in ways that are viable not only economically, but environmentally. Furthermore, quantum-based communication networks will need to be invested in and regulated in order to ensure their function and security, universal compliance and security standards will need to be enacted and enforced so that quantum stakeholders, big and small, adhere to the regulatory standard of similar areas of tech, and the government should provide industry-wide scalability projections to incorporate the future of quantum, as well as its present, into their infrastructural designs.

7.4.2 Quantum Emergency Response Team (QERT)

Given that the nature of quantum-based risks is inherently complex, and that to deal with these threats effectively, any response must draw upon expertise in all manner of areas beyond the quantum physics itself, a specialised Quantum Emergency Response Team (QERT) would need to be established to minimise disruption caused by quantum going wrong, either unintentionally, or through malicious actors. The QERT should be equipped with a set of rapid response protocols, prepared in advance of quantum-specific emergencies, specifically for the unique challenges their quantum nature poses, including but not limited to, quantum hacking attempts and infrastructure failures. Additionally, specialised training programs need to be devised in consultation with international experts, involving both simulation-based learning and real-world drills. The QERT should collaborate closely with other emergency and cybersecurity agencies, ensuring a seamless interface during crises, not only on the national level with GCHQ and the emergency services, but also globally, with Interpol, ENISA, and beyond. Finally, the QERT must play a role in educating the public about the risks and precautions at the personal, commercial, and societal levels through workshops, public talks, and educational materials.

7.5 Youth Advocacy Proposal

7.5.1 Launch a National Quantum Youth Fellowship Program

To the end of increasing youth engagement in quantum matters, a National Quantum Youth Fellowship Program (NQYFP) should be initiated so that the quantum future of the nation involves the people that will live that very future, as well as cultivating quantum interest in the younger generation. The NQYFP should have a selective recruitment process, selecting prospective individuals from various academic institutions, while also being willing to select more out-of-the-box candidates who may not have been in a position to pursue higher education yet still have valuable skills and insights to offer. The fellowship should offer a blend of opportunities from internships in industry to research projects in academia, giving students a 360-degree exposure to the quantum landscape. Furthermore, the NQYFP should provide networking events such as seminars, workshops and meet-and-greets with industry leaders, as well as post-program support for higher studies job placements and startup launching, all in order to provide the greatest possible chance of success for these youths, and, therefore, this country’s quantum future.

7.5.2 Youth Quantum Ambassador Program

The Youth Quantum Ambassador Program would mobilise young advocates for quantum technologies through a targeted training curriculum in both quantum basics and effective communication. Post-training, ambassadors would engage in a multifaceted outreach strategy—comprising school workshops, webinars, and community science fairs—to spread quantum awareness. A performance-based rewards system, tied to measurable impact metrics collected via a robust feedback mechanism, would be put in place to incentivise ongoing participation. This initiative would overall serve as a potent nexus between youth engagement and quantum innovation, serving the interests of not only the youths themselves, but the UK as a nation.

7.6 Primary/Secondary Education Proposal

7.6.1 Robust Ethics Education Programs

The British education system has limited amounts of ethics education. In Computer Science A-levels, the Cambridge A level assessment only includes one subsection in the syllabus to ethical issues, and the consideration of ethical issues is nearly nonexistent in the A-level exams.⁸⁸ Similarly, many college computer science courses lack modules for students to consider the ethical implications of quantum or computing in general.

The British education system should focus on developing and increasing ethics education. In sixth form specifically, the joint council for qualification and its awarding bodies should add space in the syllabus to consider the ethical implications of quantum computing in the course, alongside including ethical questions in exams. In computer science alongside physics, which plays a main role in quantum technologies development, courses should integrate ethics education. This should be done through discussion based case methods. A study by Information Systems education journal found an increase of critical thinking through the CAT in a fourteen week ethics education course. Students tended to also appreciate the course more, with 75% of students agreeing that they appreciated the deliberative dialogue more than other methods.⁸⁹ Case base methods should be offered over traditional lectures in ethics education because they allow students to practise analysing and conceptualising quantum ethical issues, gaining hands-on experience.

1. UK National Quantum Technologies Programme, n.d.

2. Georgescu & Nori, 2012

3. Reusch, 2013

4. Nanoscience Instruments, n.d.

5. ScienceDirect, 2000

6. Zhong et al., 2020

7. Zhu et al., 2022

8. Brubaker, 2023

9. McKinsey & Company, 2022

10. World Economic Forum, 2022

11. MIT Technology Review, 2019

12. National Institute of Standards and Technology, n.d.